Human Resource Development in Organisations (HRD) Assignment

Human Resource Development in Organisations (HRD) - Assignment Example In order to make the human resources capable of meeting the present challenges, it is necessary to update their knowledge through training and development. It is impossible for the employees to adapt to the changing organizational culture and environment in the absence of proper training. There many different training methods adopted by an organization for the proper manpower development. In fact training starts immediately after the appointment itself. It is impossible for an employee to adapt with the organizational culture and tradition easily even if he/she might be richly experienced in some other organization. Induction training is a type of training given to the new employees at the time inducting them in the organization. This may lasts from few hours to few days depending on the nature of the employees, organization and the tasks employees going to perform. This paper mainly focusing on the need and importance of induction training, topics needed to be included in the induction training, the role of Human Resource Development (HRD), importance of organizational culture to the new employees etc. Induction training is essential for the new employees in order to make them aware of the organizational culture and environment. It is impossible to have two organizations with similar culture or environment even if they are of same size, operating in same field and location. For example, if a printer working in a printing unit relocating to another printing unit in the same location, he needs induction training even if he is rich in experience. Some organizations may adopt some specific business strategies and it is necessary for the employees to be accustomed in it. For example, in tire industry, some manufacturers make steel radial tires whereas some others make radial tires using the fibers. Even though both the manufacturers are

Conspiracy Theories Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Conspiracy Theories - Assignment Example However, it failed among high-knowledge respondents. According to the results, it is very difficult to completely reduce misperceptions concerning health care reform among people that have sophistication as well as motivation to reject the corrective information. The study aimed at exploring the relationship that exists between birth control conspiracy beliefs as well as perceived discrimination and contraceptive behavior as well as attitude on African-Americans. From the cross-sectional anonymous telephone survey, it is clear that a greater percentage of the respondents observed that discrimination is targeted at African America women. The results also support birth control conspiracy beliefs. Female respondents perceived discrimination when obtaining contraceptive services or family planning. The study discovered that greater perceived discrimination and stronger conspiracy beliefs were linked to negative attitudes towards contraceptive methods, especially birth control pills, as well as with contraceptive intentions and behavior. According to the research, perceived discrimination and conspiracy beliefs may play a key role in African-Americans’ attitudes the use of contraceptive methods. Several conspiracy theories have been put forth in trying to explain the cholera epidemic. In case of an outbreak that leads to death, government officials often racialize the dead as being indigenous. Just like in the Eastern Venezuela they also suggest that their culture is to blame. However, the true picture is that the state, international politics as well as global capitalism were complicit in such a genocidal plot. Even though it is rather easy to attribute such conspiracy theories to cultural and epistemological differences, it is the political economies that plays key role in such incidences. Political economies exclude some communities from accessing authoritative information sources to

Are cell phones really dangerous to people Essay

Are cell phones really dangerous to people - Essay Example Are cell phones really dangerous to people? The control of the advertising of cell phones would be another important measure for preventing the extended exposure of people to the cell phones’ radiation. Cell phones should be regarded, as tools of communication and their use should be limited in cases of emergency. Otherwise, the increase of fatal incidents and diseases because of cell phones would not be controlled. Moreover, the terms under which the access to cell phones has been permitted to teenagers have been reviewed – taking into consideration the fact that people of this age are less likely to pay attention at the risks related to the use of cell phones – as highlighted in relevant academic studies. At this point, the following problem has been identified: children have often access to cell phones with the permission of their parents. This trend is extremely dangerous especially since scientists have set severe restrictions regarding the potential use of cell phones by children – but these restrictions seem to be ignored by most of people worldwide. At this point the following problem appears: are cell phones really dangerous to people? This problem has been explored through a series of relevant studies. It is proved that cell phones can actually harm the health; moreover, it seems that the risks for health can be severe for people of all ages. At the next level, it has been made clear that the ways in which cell phones can affect the health of humans can vary; the direct use of cell phone may be less harmful compared to the residence near a cell phone tower. In the article of Geoffrey, published online by the Independent, reference is made to the research of Dr Vini Khurana who studied the effects of cell phones on health; the above research led to the following findings: ‘the use of handsets for 10 years or more can double the risk of brain cancer’ (Geoffrey par.3). In the above study, emphasis is also given on the fact that certain types of cancer can take quite long to develop – even up to a decade; therefore, the above study – having lasted for such period - provides a precise estimation of the potential effects of cell phones on brain. Another important finding of the study of Khurana has been the following one: cell phones can be more dangerous from smoking (par.1); the above finding indicates the level of risk related to the use of cell phones but also the level at which cell phones intervene in daily activities having led to the development of addiction similar to smoking – as this problem is revealed through the study presented above. The various aspects of the danger of cell phones for human health are analyzed in the article of Kovach, published online by the magazine Life Extension; in the above article reference is made to the findings of the research developed by George Carlo, a medical scientist who has spent years on studying the effects of cell phones – both of handsets and cell phone towers – on health; his research lasted from 1993 up to 1999 and reveals a series of important aspects of the health risks related to the use of cell phones (par.3, 4). The key findings of his study could be summarized as follows: a) cell phones are not tested as for their risks for health; they enter the market without any testing, as a result of a legislative gap of the peri od when these devices appeared – the 1980s (par.5), b) cell phones can cause severe problems of health, even death, since they are involved in the continuous transmission of waves which can adversely affect the bio-field of humans (par.6); it is possible for this reason that cell phones have been also related to the changes in the DNA of their users –

American National Government Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

American National Government - Essay Example The Supreme Court had never occasion to rule on freedom of speech issues until opponents of conscription during WWI were prosecuted for sedition. These cases established that speech that presented as "clear and present danger" to the government could be prohibited. This definition has remained the court's operative principle in such cases since that time. Since cases began to be brought before the court in the 1970s concerning campaign financing, the Court has consistently refused any limitation on the right of candidates to spend money, but just as consistently allowed the strict limitation of direct political contributions (so that, for example, an extremely wealthy individual could not single-handedly finance the campaign of any candidate but himself). The Supreme Court has always held that flag burning, precisely because of it unpopular and wildly politically inflammatory character, is protected speech. a. push: A push pool is a sort of telemarketing campaign disguised as a telephone poll in which the political operatives call potential voters and ask them leading or unfair questions meant to alter their political views. b.

Stories about miracles Essay Example for Free

Stories about miracles Essay Stories about miracles are an obstacle to faith for modern people. Discuss. The whole concept of miracles is rooted in the fantastical, improbable and downright outrageous. So its not particularly hard to see why modern, enlightened people might consider them an obstacle to faith. However, stories about miracles are part of religious lore; so if they are an obstacle, theyre certainly not insurmountable. Indeed, for some they can be said to enhance the idea of a loving, divine God. But exactly how loving can a God that is so indifferent to the suffering of those he doesnt deem worthy of his miracles be? A willingness to believe in Gods benevolence must be present in order to ignore the unfair nature of miracles, and in these literate, informed times, it proves incredibly difficult to have such faith. An important religious perspective on miracles is that of St Thomas Aquinas. Aquinas believed that God can manipulate creation in any way he/she desires. His definition of miracles is those things done by divine power apart from the order usually followed in things. This idea is useful for those inclined towards faith because it encompasses a vast spectrum of events, ranging from a spontaneous apparition of someone dead to an unlikely, but possible occurrence such as a fast recovery from a curable ailment. But this definition of miracles presents some problems. For example, John Macquarie argues that because interpretation of supposedly miraculous events varies, it is nonsensical to ascribe religious meaning to acts that are quite possibly random and lucky. How are we to distinguish between coincidence and an act of God? Surely God cant be responsible for every last one of the unlikely fortuitous events that happen in the world? The Bible appears to fail to provide any answers- it si mply asserts that God exists and his miracles occurred, evidence be damned. In spite of this, the miracles in the Bible can be said to support faith for modern people, as they demonstrate the power and benevolence of God. A prominent example would be Isaiah 38:8, when God stops the Sun for King Hezekiahs benefit. Another would be when Jesus raises Lazarus from the dead. Miracles such as these can evoke powerful religious feeling. The implausible nature of these acts, however, makes them a very real roadblock on the path to faith for many discerning, intelligent people. Rudolf Bultmann addressed this by attempting to demythologise Christ. By doing this, he thought he could both enable faith for modern people while allowing them to maintain their suspension of disbelief. He offered rational explanations for the miracles of Christ; for example, when Jesus fed the 5000, there may have been a concealed cave behind him, or he may have simply inspired the others around him to share. This approach is better than the literal interpretation of Biblical miracles because it offers a logical, contemporary solution for Jesus supposedly divine acts whilst maintaining their essential goodness. But it can also be said that by demythologising Christ you take away the power of his sacrifice- his divinity is integral to Christianity. David Hume provides a less liberal definition of the miraculous. He limits miracles to a transgression of a law of natureby a particular volition of the deity. This essentially means that nothing that happens within nature should be labelled miraculous. Hume does not outright reject miracles, but he instead uses the fact that they are impossible to prove to support his criticism. If we are to adhere to Humes staunchly rationalistic stance, concluding that miracles are an obstacle to faith would be inevitable, as there is no evidence for them. However, Humes argument is not entirely without its detractors. For example, his parameters can be described as too restrictive. He arrogantly claims that the only credible witness to a miracle is a well-educated, reputable person. But if a miracle genuinely occurs, why are the eyes of an academic more reliable than those of a farmer? John Hick also points out that Hume is assuming that we are privy to all the laws of nature. They certainly appear to have been broken before, only for it to be found that certain things thought imp. Hicks conclusion is that observing things we do not understand does not constitute breaking natures laws; we simply need to broaden our understanding of nature. Arguably the most compelling argument against miracles was devised by Maurice Wiles. Wiles premise is that a God willing to perform arbitrary miraculous acts is unworthy of worship, because he/she seems indifferent to the suffering of others. Why does God heal some people, but let others suffer unbearable agonies? The intervening God of Christianity turned water into wine, but remained indifferent to the suffering of six million Jews. Of course, one could argue that greater, celestial rewards await the dead for their pains, but it is my belief that no reward can justify such torture. For some, the concept of a miraculous God allows for a small degree of security and comfort in the knowledge that, despite the dangers of this harsh, brutal world, someone is taking care of you. It would, for them, seem quite cynical to say that miracles are an obstacle to faith. Despite this, I cannot fathom the idea of an arbitrary, indifferent God, saving people based on whimsy. Faith is obviously a very personal thing, but in these enlightened, intelligent times I am forced to conclude that an intervening deity is both illogical and outdated.

Challenges of Raising a Disabled Child Essay Example for Free

Challenges of Raising a Disabled Child Essay Caring for a child with a disability can be challenging due to parenting responsibilities and the difficulties they encounter when interacting with an often unreceptive environment. Consequently, parents can be at increased risk for excessive levels of personal distress which in turn can adversely affect the well being of the child and the entire family unit (Plant Sanders, 2007). Parents of children with disabilities can be at an increased risk for psychosocial distress (Parish, Rose, Grinstein-Weiss, Richman Andrews, 2008; Plant Sanders, 2007). The parenting responsibilities for parents of children with disabilities often require a significant amount of time to complete, can be physically demanding, can disrupt family and social relationships, and can adversely affect caregiver employment (Brannen Heflinger, 2006; Seller Heller, 1997). Perhaps as a consequence of these additional impacts, family caregivers of children with disabilities can be at increased risk to experience depression, physical health problems, and decreased quality of life (Feldman, et al. , 2007; Ones, Yilmaz, Cetinkaya, Calgar, 2002). The added challenges of caring for a child with a disability may lead to more stress and greater physical and emotional health risks for parents and their families (e. g. , increased conflict with spouse; Murphy, Christian, Caplin Young, 2006) compared to families without a child with a disability (Feldman et al. , 2007). This topic is particularly personal for me because I know first hand the psychological affects and challenges that a handicap child could have on parents, family members, and friends. My son was two months when I notice that something just wasn’t right with him. I noticed him favoring one side instead of looking straight ahead. I mentioned my concerns to our family doctor. His doctor didn’t see it as a problem. She said to just continue to watch him. Two months passed and still no change, so at his next appointment I expressed my concern again. I insisted that she run tests on my son immediately. I knew something seemed different; I just couldn’t put my finger on it. I had already had two other boys so something just didn’t sit right with me. The doctor sent my son to be tested at University of Maryland Hospital and my son was diagnosed with Hydrocephalus Dandywalker Malformation with Palsy. He had to have surgery at six months to have a shunt placement to drain the water from his brain. I was devastated. My husband and I went through several defense mechanisms. The first I believe was denial. We didn’t want to face the fact that something was wrong with our child, our baby. He seemed so perfect when he was born just a few months ago. We went through repression, rationalization and intellectualization. We couldn’t wrap our minds around the fact that our child would be different from other children. Nobody wants to believe that something is wrong with their child. I felt a little embarrassed for fear of what people might think about our child or what someone would say. So many things raced around my mind. We wanted to blame the doctors; maybe they did something wrong in my prenatal care. I went over in my mind again and again of every little thing I did when pregnant to ensure that I had did everything I was supposed to do. I didn’t drink, smoke or do drugs. What happened? We tried to search our family history genetics. We just came up empty. My husband and I became depressed, frustrated, and angry. I felt helpless about my son’s condition. I wasn’t sure what to do. Finally, I began to investigate my son’s condition. I read all I could get my hands on. I searched for schools and other medical resources to help me address my son’s needs. In the back of my mind I was still trying to make sense of the fact that my son had a developmental and neurological problem that would affect him for the rest of his life. I wondered what restrictions we would face now and in the future. I still wasn’t sure if I could cope with his lack of development neurologically, physically, mentally or emotionally. I began to question God. I wondered why me. I wasn’t sure if I would have to stop working. I wondered how we as a family would work together to stay a family. I had so many questions, but no answers. I prayed asking God for help and guidance. Later, I began to realize that I had to be strong. I had to accept what the reality was with my son and his disability. It hasn’t been easy. We faced many financial problems, medical issues, several hospitalizations for my son, divorce; daycare issues especially since my son needed twenty four hour daycare. Day care is very expensive as well as diapers and wipes for disabled children. Insurance covers some things but not enough. A person has to be making next to nothing in order to get any assistance from the government; we needed assistance regardless of what we made monetary. I would have never known what disabled families went through to get their voice heard and children’s needs assisted unless I had to face these great challenges myself. So much goes into raising a child with disabilities. There are many variables that factor into taking care of a disabled child. Financial hardships are another important factor that influences parents’ wellbeing. In general families with children with disabilities experience much higher expenditures than other families (Newacheck and Kim, 2005) found that, on average, the total annual health care expenditures for children with disabilities were more than three times as much compared to children without disabilities. The financial strain incurred by families of children with disabilities is likely due to increased expenses related to the child’s needs as well as loss of employment or inability to work because of parenting responsibilities (Murphy et al. , 2006; Parish et al. 2008; Worcester et al. , 2008). Inability to engage in employment can also lead to feelings of isolation, a lack of fulfillment and low self-esteem (Shearn Todd, 2000). Families of children with disabilities often report feeling isolated from the community (Freedman Boyer, 2000; Worcester et al. , 2008). What I’ve learned from researching the challenges of raising a child with disabilities; as well as being a parent of a disabled child is that there is still so much more to be done. There is still research that hasn’t been touched regarding parents and their disable children. We the parents have to be the voices for our disable children. We have to be better informed about what our disabled children rights are. We have to be willing and ready to fight on behalf of our disable children. Parents and state officials have to work to get better laws passed to accommodate disabled children. Disabled children need better health care programs, better schools; a place for them to be themselves. Parents need a place to relax and not have to worry about dirty looks that people who don’t have disabled children give them. Parents shouldn’t have to feel ashamed that they have disabled children. We shouldn’t be looked down upon because our children are different. Our children shouldn’t be bullied or treated like they are worthless. Our children are special. They deserve the best that we can help them to achieve in life. They deserve a chance like the rest of us. We’ve got to come together and help each other to provide a better life for all! The questions we should ask researchers to study are many. One could be what’s being done to assist parents with disabled children? Are there programs to assist parents in child care for disabled children? Normal daycare centers are for infants through 12 years of age. As of today my disabled son is 16 years old and there’s really no day care for children his age. Another question is why do they go according to parents’ income in order to assist with social security disability? A parent shouldn’t have to be jobless in order to obtain assistance from social security disability. Yet a person who walks into social security disability and say my back hurt or that they have a condition can obtain money; work the system while the truly disabled suffer. There are so many people working the disability system and really aren’t disabled. We have to help the programs we have for our disabled children actually help the disabled children. In conclusion caring for a child with a disability can be challenging, but many of these challenges are likely due to a lack of necessary environmental supports. Future research should expand on these findings and policy makers, scientists and providers should give particular attention to the environmental support needs of parents in order to create policies and interventions that are more family centered.

Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS)

Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) Modern biomedicine advances have impelled the demand of sensitive, accurate and fast analytical techniques for biodetection and biodiagnosis. Many tools ranging from fluorescence spectroscopy, mass spectrometry or immunoassays have been used to resolve analytical problems related with health. Although these techniques are well established, several drawbacks still limit their fully applicability, e.g. prior sample preparation, time consumption or relatively low detection limits[1]. Recent developments in laser technology and nanoscience have converted surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) as one of the techniques with highest analytical potential. The SERS effect is associated to the intense electromagnetic field enhancements provided, upon light excitation, by localized surface plasmon resonances (LSPRs) at the surface of a plasmonic metal with features in the nanoscale range [2]. The Raman signal of the molecules in close vicinity to the metal substrate is enormously intensifie d, allowing sensing applications down to single-molecule [3]. Since its initial discovery, almost 40 years ago, the field of SERS spectroscopy has experienced an exponential growth, renewing the interest within the scientific community[4]. Among numerous potential applications, SERS has emerged as an ultrasensitive tool for detection and identification of biomolecules, such as DNA. [1, 5]. However, although a wide range of indirect SERS-based DNA approaches have been developed (mostly relying on the mediated capture of the target DNA and the use of extrinsic SERS reporters), the direct SERS spectral analysis of unmodified DNA still remains scarcely used, despite the fact that it provides specific, selective and complete vibrational information. The major limitation has been so far the lack of spectral reproducibility at low DNA concentrations. The investigation of the native structure of DNA (especially double-stranded DNA) based on its affinity towards gold/silver substrates was ma inly hindered by the phosphate backbone of DNA, since it is negatively charged at physiological pH. Recently, the spectral reproducibility issue have been addressed by different scientific groups based on the interaction of DNA with negatively charged nanoparticles, which have renewed the interest indirect SERS-based strategies of detection of DNA.[6-9] On the other hand, Alvarez-Puebla and co-workers developed a successful alternative strategy based on the use of positively-charged silver colloids coated with spermine molecules ([emailprotected]).[10, 11] DNA is the carrier of all genetic information in living organisms. Although it is a stable macromolecule, can be subjected to changes such as mutations derived from evolution, genetic diseases or genomic aberrations which can lead to cancer.[12] Apart from the known four canonical bases contained in DNA and RNA, a variety of modified nucleobases play a major role in gene regulation.[13] In higher organisms, epigenetic information for gen regulation is needed in order to determine their functions and properties. 5-methylcytosine is the most investigated modification in mammalian genomic DNA. However, many cytosine variants in DNA regulartory network such 5-formylcytosine, 5-carboxylcytosine and 5-hydroxymethylcytosine have been recently identified. In fact, 5-hydroxymethylcytosine is produced in mammalian tissues and depleted in human cancer cells.[14] These discoveries have suggested that new nucleotide variants possess epigenetic functions for gen regulation that have been underesti mated. In addition to epigenetic modifications, an ample variety of nucleobase lesions (such as alkylation, oxidation, deamination, and cross-linking) can take place as a result of carcinogen attacks to DNA.[15, 16] In some cases, carcinogens are inherently reactive toward DNA while others require to be firstly metabolically activated to electrophilic intermediates such as phagocyte-generated reactive oxygen, nitrogen and halogen species.[17-19] Anyhow, all these DNA lesions are mutagenic or cytotoxic and, if not properly repaired by the corresponding enzymatic systems, may induce base mispairing during DNA replication.[16] Accumulation of such mutations in genes controlling cell growth, proliferation, programmed cell death, and cell differentiation is likely to cause cancer.[20, 21] Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are possibly the main class of DNA damaging agents, which generates a wide set of different oxidative lesions [22] such as those produced by the direct attack of the highly reactiv e hydroxyl radical (†¢OH) to the nucleobase double bonds. On the other hand, inflammation-induced formation of 5-halocytosines adducts (5-chlorocytosine and 5-bromocytosine), have been identified in DNA from human tissues.[23-27] Importantly, 5-halocytosines could act as fraudulent epigenetic signals, in part explaining the link between chronic inflammation and cancer.[28-33] Due to the recent discoveries of new nucleotide variants with epigenetic functions, an intense research has been directed toward the development of novel methods to detect, profile, and sequence these base modifications in the genome and transcriptome.[34] These strategies span from pure detection and quantification methods (thin layer chromatography (TLC) analysis,[35] antibody-based detection,[36, 37] 32P-postlabelling[15] and liquid chromatography (LC)-mass spectrometry (MS)[38]) to genome-wide profiling methods and single-base-resolution sequencing methods.[39] A relatively new field in this exciting area is the screening of DNA samples for unknown or unanticipated lesions, which is referred to as â€Å"adductomics†.[40] Nowadays, this sort of analysis is primarily performed with liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution/accurate mass spectrometry (LC−MSn).[15, 40] This technique relies on the fragmentation of protonated modified nucleobases which are then d ifferentiated according to their molecular mass.[15, 40] However, DNA adduct analysis by mass spectrometry is costly and time-consuming since it requires a prior sample preparation which normally involves several standard steps, such as DNA hydrolysis into the corresponding monomers, enrichment of the DNA adducts, removal of unmodified nucleobases and addition of an appropriate internal standard.[40] Extreme caution must be paid to avoid artificial generation of DNA lesions during these processing steps. This research project aims the direct SERS detection of four different cytosine variants in single-stranded DNA sequences, by means of [emailprotected] colloids. 5-methylcytosine (mC) and 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (hmC) were investigated due to their epigenetic importance in mammalian DNA. 5-bromocytosine (BrC) and 5-hydroxycytosine (hC) were studied as a representative modification involved in DNA damage. Transition from Raman to SERS The Raman phenomenon is related to the process where inelastic scattered photons are simultaneously emitted upon monochromatic light interaction with a specific molecule (Figure 1a). During the scattering process, a large majority of the photons are scattered at the same incident energy (Raighley scattering), whereas a small part of photons either gain or loose energy (anti-Stokes and Stokes Raman scattering respectively).[41] The resulting Raman spectral bands correspond to vibrational and rotational transitions which are specific to each molecular system providing a vibrational â€Å"fingerprint†. Raman scattering is a weak phenomenon since nearly 1 in 106 1010photons are inelastically scattered[42]. In most of the Raman studies the fraction of the spectrum involving anti-Stokes bands is usually ignored due to the weakness of the bands (Figure 1b). Although the invention of the laser in 1960s implied great improvements in Raman spectroscopy, the lack of sensitivity was stil l a sever limitation. In 1974, Fleischmann et al.[43] observed for the first time an unexpected dramatic enhancement of the Raman signal from pyridine in presence of rough silver electrodes. Later in 1977, a series of independent reports of Jeanmaire et al.[44], and Albrecht et al.[45] explained the origin of such enhancement, which renewed the interest in Raman techniques and paved the way to Surface Enhanced Raman scattering. There are two widely accepted theories that explain the origin of SERS enhancement compared to Raman scattering (Figure 1c): the electromagnetic enhancement (EM) and the chemical enhancement (CE). The EM is considered to be the major contribution of the enhancement and is highly influenced by the characteristics of the metal (composition, shape, size). This EM effect arises upon light interaction with a noble metal surface, generating collective oscillations of conduction electrons named as surface plasmon resonances (LSPRs). The coupling of these LSPRs with the emission of the analyte adsorbed or in close vicinity to the metal surface is responsible for the scattering intensification, which can reach values up to 1010-1011 [41]. In particular, large local electromagnetic fields are observed at the inter-particle junctions (known as â€Å"hot spots†) of noble metal nanoparticles which are in close proximity (mostly Ag and Au). Among others, the EM enhancement drastically decre ases as the distance between the analyte and the metal surface increases [42] which explains the requirement of close proximity between the nanostructured surface and the target molecule. The CE contribution to the SERS signal enhancement is usually weaker and, differently to the EM mechanism, is molecule-specific. In fact, when the analyte adsorbs onto the metallic substrate, a new surface-complex is formed and, new electronic transitions may be possible due to the change in the analyte properties such as the Raman polarizability. These transitions are comparable to the Resonant Raman transitions, which analogously lead to higher Raman cross sections. If both mechanisms (EM and CE) are present, their effect is assumed to be multiplicative[46]. Figure 1.(a) Schematic comparison between Raman and SERS effects (b) Raman and SERS spectra of Rhodamine G (c) SERS enhancement mechanisms***. 1.2 SERS substrates For SERS applications, noble metals substrates (mostly silver and gold) must contain features in the nano-range scale (not higher than the excitation wavelength). In fact, whereas large nanostructures highly hamper the LSPRs, too small nanostructures cannot support these plasmon resonances, leading to low enhancement factors [41]. During the past years great efforts have been made to coherently engineer SERS substrates. Two main approaches have been used for the design of SERS substrates: top down approaches, involving mainly lithographic techniques, and bottom up approaches.[47] Top down approaches allow the controlled manipulation of interparticle gaps and relatively simple functionalization of metal surfaces. In the case of bottom up approaches, nanoparticles are chemically synthetized and subsequently assembled in suspension or in ordered manner. In this context, silver and gold nanoparticles are the most used SERS-active substrates due to their outstanding optical response. Noteworthy, the LSPRs of silver substrates cover a wider wavelength range (comprising most of the visible and nearinfrared spectral region) than gold substrates. Below 600 nm, gold nanoparticles mostly absorb the incident light, hampering the surface plasmon resonances in this spectral range. [48] On the other hand, gold nanoparticles are more stable under oxidative conditions, easily prepared and with high potential tunable plasmon properties. [49] 1.3 SERS instrumentation Current dispersive Raman instruments are coupled with microscopes and several laser beam lines as excitation sources. The choice of the excitation wavelength (mainly from the visible to NIR) depends strictly on the application. An important factor to take into account when performing a SERS measurement, is the Raman scattering efficiency since it depends on the fourth power of the frequency[50]. Therefore, shorter wavelengths improve the Raman sensitivity although the risk of fluorescence or sample degradation also increases and has to be considered [51]. In this particular set-up and in most modern Raman spectrophotometers, the inelastically scattered light is collected at 180o geometry. In the confocal unit, the light from the laser initially passes through a pinhole aperture. This light is then delivered through the notch filters (interference filters) where it is completely reflected into the microscope and reaches the sample through the beam splitter. Then, the inelastically scattered light passes back through the same optics, a monocromator and finally reaches de CCD detector. The Rayleigh scattering is efficiently blocked by the notch filters.